Examining the Rights and Status of Women in Marriage and Divorce during the Parthian Era: A Historical-Feminist Analysis of Patriarchal Structures

Authors

1 Assistant Professor, Department of History, University of Arak., Arak. Iran.

2 Associate Professor, Department of History, University of Arak, Arak, Iran

3 Master's Graduate, Shahid Chamran University

Abstract

The Parthian era (247 BCE to 224 CE) represents one of the longest and most influential reigns in Iranian history, during which the family system and the status of women were shaped by deeply entrenched patriarchal structures, codified legal norms, and dynamic cultural interactions with neighboring civilizations. Utilizing the historical feminist frameworks of Linda Alcoff and Elizabeth Potter, this study explores the institution of marriage and the legal conditions surrounding divorce for women during this period, addressing the central question: To what extent did patriarchal authority and cross-cultural exchanges with Hellenistic and Roman civilizations shape the rights and agency of Parthian women?
Findings indicate that the Parthian family system was grounded in the absolute patriarchal authority of men, where women frequently functioned as instruments of political alliance and economic negotiation. Marriage practices such as khvedōdah (consanguineous marriage) and elite polygamy were common among the aristocracy as mechanisms for preserving lineage and class privilege, while divorce regulations were unilateral and heavily biased in favor of men. However, evidence of women’s acts of resistance—including efforts to pursue independent marriages or initiate separation from their husbands—illustrates their limited yet significant agency within these constraints. This research underscores that, despite the pervasive dominance of patriarchal norms, traces of female autonomy and resistance are discernible in the historical record of Parthian society.

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References

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  • Receive Date: 26 April 2025
  • Revise Date: 07 July 2025
  • Accept Date: 16 July 2025

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